Jessica Crabtree

September 19, 1737: The Lenape (Delaware) “Walking Purchase” sets the boundaries of a colonial land swindle

The Walking Purchase Treaty – part of what may well be the most bizarre land-grab scheme in history – was based on a deed dating to the 1680′s. Supposedly signed by the Lenape Indians and Pennsylvania’s Quaker founders, it granted the colonists a parcel of land ambiguously measured from the Delaware-Lehigh river junction as far west as a man could travel on foot in a day and a half.

It is not clear whether this deed even existed, and Pennsylvania’s colonial government suddenly decided to collect – or whether it was just another fraudulent pretext for a land grab. Anyway it is a twisted irony of history that the very sons of William Penn, who was such a conscientious ally of the Lenape, should use their standing to such rapacious advantage.

Fully intending to honor their ancestors’ agreement, several Lenape chiefs met in Philadelphia in September to sign a treaty confirming the cession, including Lapowinsa (also Lappawinsoe) and Tishcohan. But the true face of the deal became apparent when the governor of Pennsylvania authorized settlers to clear a road for three hired runners to perform the role of the proverbial “man on foot” for the official survey.

The 36-hour dash undertaken by the runners was so intense that only one finished the course; but the 70 miles he covered created boundaries that amassed over a million acres for the colony.

For the next two decades, Lenape representatives appealed the so-called “Walking Purchase Treaty,” but eventually were forced westward alongside an influx of other displaced peoples. In the 1830s, most Lenape were relocated to Oklahoma as part of the mass removals collectively known as the “Trail of Tears.”

Both Lapowinsa and Tishcohan were depicted by the Swedish painter Gustavus Hesselius around the time of the Walking Purchase Treaty. These early portraits are distinctive for their attentive detail, and almost personal manner. They are rare glimpses of the Native people of this period. (Click for larger view)

Image: ExplorePAHistory.com (Credit: Courtesy of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Atwater Kent Museum of Philadelphia)

Read more:

The Walking Purchase – A really good blog post on the background of the Walking Treaty, the Lenape nation, and several significant figures of the period

The Delaware Walking Treaty – Philadelphia History

Wikipedia: Walking Purchase

Lenape archives at ExplorePAHistory.com

Delaware Nation Website

September 4, 1893: Birth of fictional character “Peter Rabbit”

Since his conception in a letter to a little boy in Victorian England, Peter Rabbit has become the signature creation of English artist and naturalist Beatrix Potter. He became the first patented character after Potter licensed the production of a trademarked plush toy in 1903.

When Peter Rabbit was first published in 1902 by Frederick Warne & Co., Potter designed every aspect of the book, from the illustrations to the covers and bindings. In the 1930′s her stories were re-issued using this first publication as a template. The Warne centenary edition in 2002 took this effort up a notch by completely restoring and remastering the copy film to reflect the original format, resulting in the most authentic rendition to date.

Right: The original “Peter Rabbit” letter written to Noel Moore dated September 3, 1893 (Image: The World of Beatrix Potter)

About Beatrix Potter

Beatrix Potter was born in 1866 to a well-off English family. From a young age she had an exceptionally agile mind which the conventions of Victorian culture were slow to accommodate. Though shy and reserved, her girlhood journals show her to have been an imaginative and talented budding artist and a shrewd social critic.

Photo: Children’s Classics.com.au – Biography of Beatrix Potter

Her passion for wildlife was evident early in life, from the small animals she and her brother kept (later to become models for some of her characters) to her growing interest in the natural sciences and conservation.

Her Tale of Peter Rabbit – written, like Lewis Carroll’sAlice in Wonderland, for the entertainment of a small child – spawned a series of watercolor-illustrated animal tales that quickly became established children’s classics. By the end of the first year’s publication alone, 28,000 copies were in circulation.

The stellar success of her illustrated books offered Potter some independence in the face of social restriction and family expectations. It enabled her to buy property in England’s beautiful Lake District, where her ‘Hill Top Farm’ became a thriving operation and is today a national historic site. She became one of the country’s most respected figures in sheep-raising and land management and conservation.

Her life was recently the subject of the 2006 film Miss Potter, earning actress Renee Zellweger a Golden Globe nomination for her portrayal of the artist.

Links

The World of Beatrix Potter – The ‘official’ website of Peter Rabbit & friends; plus detailed material on Potter’s work and legacy

The Beatrix Potter Society of the UK

More than just Bunnies: The Legacy of Beatrix Potter

Wikipedia: Peter Rabbit

Wikipedia: Beatrix Potter

August 30, 1748: Birth of the French painter Jacques-Louis David

David was born to a privileged family of Parisian architects during the height of France’s ancien regime. He was expected to follow this profession, but his early education quickly revealed a strong proclivity for art and a heady temperament – both of which would define the course of his adult life.

His first art teacher was an old-school artist of the Rococo style who recognized David’s strong Classical sympathies and sent him to a colleague, Joseph-Marie Vien, who became David’s long-time mentor. Under his tutelage, David attended the Royal Academy (part of what is today the Louvre). In 1774, after several failed attempts, he won the prestigious Prix de Rome, and later traveled to Italy with Vien where he immersed himself in Classical art forms and early Renaissance painting.

Upon returning to Paris five years later, he was finally admitted membership to Royal Academy, and was also granted residence at the Louvre by royal appointment. Despite all these honors he was impatient for greater recognition and frustrated by what he felt was discrimination against his age. His problematic attitude did not endear him to his superiors and his brash, ardent and sometimes narcissistic nature meant inevitable collisions with his peers and his patrons. But his position offered him both means and security and the 1780s found him a man in his forties with a family, a comfortable living, an expanding student roll, and a growing reputation.

Left: Portrait of Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier and his Wife (1788)

Lavoisier was a brilliant French scientist who was executed during the Reign of Terror on minor charges, partly through the influence of Marat (the same Marat whose death David later portrayed so iconically). Fellow scientist Lagrange said, “It took them only an instant to cut off his head, but France may not produce another such head in a century.”

David’s appetite for the heroic and grandiose, however, was about to be filled, and he was soon swept up in the radical changes erupting throughout France. His quest for the Neoclassical ideal – austere, noble, self-sacrificing – found a new outlet on the stage of the French Revolution.

David and other Neoclassicists felt they could elevate the artistic plane of their society by reviving the order and refinement of Greco-Roman civilization, uplifting humanity to a new level of honor, nobility, and reason. They saw the Revolution as the opportunity, and art as the catalyst.

This worldview is exemplified by paintings of the period, such as The Oath of the Horatii (1784) and The Death of Socrates (1787), which glorify their Classical subjects and project their values and virtues onto the revolutionary cause. But they also illustrate how easily the line between public expression and propaganda can become blurred.

True to his impetuous nature, David became embroiled in politics – as a member of the Jacobin Club and a friend of Robespierre, voting for the king’s execution in 1792 and even turning his influence against the Royal Academy (possibly out of frustration in not receiving all the benefits he felt he deserved). He organized public spectacles: festivals, processions, and carefully orchestrated unveilings of politically charged paintings, intended to stir or sway popular sentiment.

The limelight was intense but short-lived. As revolutionary fervor escalated out of control and the Reign of Terror began, internal power struggles undermined Jacobin leadership and David himself only narrowly escaped being executed alongside Robespierre. He landed in prison where he painted his famous self-portrait. This brush with danger was enough to satisfy even David’s thirst for the heroic.

“This is Civilisation” presented by art critic Matthew Collings – This excerpt gives a visual tour of The Oath of the Horatii – austere, paternalistic, typically Roman. The episode examines the careers of both David and Spanish painter Goya to contrast their evaluation of human nature.

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August 15, 1926: Native American acting pioneer Eddie Little Sky is born

Eddie Little Sky was born Edsel Wallace Little on the Pine Ridge Reservation (Oglala) in South Dakota. After serving in the Navy in the Pacific theater of World War II, he returned to civilian life as a rodeo and stunt rider, hoping a performance career would make him a living off the rez. When the impressed Audie Murphy watched one of his shows, he encouraged Little to audition for the screen.

Little Sky (as he later adopted for his screen name) became one of the first Indian actors to play Native roles on tv. Up until then Indians – even in leading roles – were played almost exclusively by white actors and very few Indians ever appeared on screen. His prolific filmography eventually included dozens of movies and almost every popular western series of the 50′s and 60′s – making him, if not a household name, at least a familiar face in homes across the country.

Today he is best remembered for his role as a Sioux chief in the major 1970 film “A Man Called Horse.”

His career was a significant milestone in the public portrayal of Native Americans. The presence of an Indian actor representing Indians on screen gave some authenticity to their overwhelmingly stereotyped persona. Along with other pioneers in the field, such as Jay Silverheels, he helped opened the door for other aspiring Native actors and actresses.

His wife Dawn, also Lakota, was an actress who occasionally appeared alongside him in films.

Eddie retired in the 1970′s and worked as a tribal parks & recreation administrator back at his home in South Dakota. He died in 1997.

Wikipedia: Eddie Little Sky

August 11, 3114 BC: Beginning of the “Long Count” Calendar, marking the Mesoamerican creation date

The Mayans believe that the world has existed in successive stages, with the current Great Cycle beginning on this date in 3114 BC. Each “Long Count” consists of 13 periods called baktuns. The present Long Count lasts up to December 21, 2012, and the next cycle effectively begins at that date with the start of the 14th baktun – in other words, the first baktun of the next Long Count.

Read more in my post about the Mayan calendar, the Mesoamerican Long Count, and the 2012 doomsday (or not):

August 11: Beginning of the Mayan Long Count

June 18, 1868: Return from the Navajo “Long Walk” begins

The Long Walk was part of a removal program similar to the Trail of Tears. Beginning in January, 1864, Navajo people from across Arizona were led by army troops and Western legend Kit Carson on a forced march to the Bosque Redondo internment camp in New Mexico. An area nearly 40 square miles, originally intended to support around 5,000 people, it came to host nearly twice that number as the removals continued.

The relocation project was a fiasco; the area’s bad water and impossible terrain made disease and hunger rampant. In addition, the confinement of Navajo together with Apache and Kiowa led to conflict. The ordeal eventually claimed the lives of thousands of Navajo people.

Courtesy of the State Records Center and Archives. Frank McNitt Papers, Serial #5514; photo #5702. “Navajos under guard at Fort Sumner,” ca. 1864 (New Mexico Office of the State Historian)

US and Navajo leaders signed a treaty on June 1, 1868 which granted the right of return for the Navajo expatriates and formed the nucleus of the modern-day Navajo reservation. On June 18, the diverse bands of the Navajo diaspora began their trek back to their ancestral homelands in the Four Corners region of the Southwest, known to them as “Dine-tah.”

The Navajo are among the few Indian nations to have regained possession of their traditional territory. Their land holdings have expanded to what is today the largest Indian reservation in the US.

New Mexico History – The Long Walk

Legends of America – The Navajo Long Walk to the Bosque Redondo

Production interviews from the KUED documentary The Long Walk: Tears of the Navajo

NPR Story: The Navajo Nation’s Own ‘Trail of Tears’

Wikipedia: Long Walk of the Navajo

Wikipedia: Bosque Redondo

June 11, 1776: English painter John Constable is born

“Painting is but another word for feeling” – John Constable

Constable found himself wedged between two artistic worlds – the formal, elaborate Classical style that relished the ancient and remote; and the new Romantic school that sought to sublimate nature into something at once mystical and intimately personal. Both groups found Constable’s work hopelessly domestic and mundane. While Constable’s paintings betray his admiration for the technique and skill of the old masters, they also showed a definite Impressionistic flair; but the provincial flavor of his work did not endear him to the Romantics either, who expected a more idealized approach.

Somewhere between the two camps was forged a fusion of tradition and innovation that made Constable perhaps Britain’s greatest landscape artist.

In fact it was not in England but in France that his work had both the best reception and the strongest influence – a ironic twist considering that Constable never traveled outside of England. His professional career suffered because his accomplishments were so slow to gain recognition in his own country. But the impact he had on early French Romanticism, and the later Impressionist movement, is obvious in the works of Millet and other painters of the Barbizon school, who successfully combined naturalism with realism.

Left: Self-Portrait (1804) courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery (Source: Britannica Online)

Constable was born the son of a merchant in Suffolk, England, and later credited the beautiful countryside of southern England where he was raised as his main artistic impetus. Like many great artists, he was originally intended to follow his father’s trade, but his first exposure to fine art led him to pursue serious study – and fortunately his family consented.

The Hay Wain (1821) is easily one of the most recognizable English paintings. But when it was first exhibited at the Royal Academy, no one would buy it. At the pivotal Paris Salon Exhibition in 1824, it won ardent acclaim – and a gold medal from the French king!

The oil on canvas (originally titled Landscape: Noon) is one of the so-called “six-footers,” and depicts a mill belonging to Constable’s father and the cottage of a local farmer. It illustrates the artist’s need to incorporate the human elements of his environment.

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May 26, 1912: Mohawk Iroquois film & tv star Jay Silverheels is born

Jay Silverheels was born Harold Smith in Canada on the Six Nations Indian Reserve. His father was a Mohawk chief who had served in World War I. At the time, the Iroquois – like most First Nations people in Canada and their counterparts in the United States – were not considered citizens.

As a young man, Silverheels was incredibly athletic and quickly rose to the status of lacrosse & boxing champion. He came to the US to pursue an athletic career off-rez and soon caught Hollywood’s eye, landing him his first roles as a stuntman and movie extra.

At the time very few Indians were involved in the media spotlight; they almost never received leading roles of any kind and were often overlooked for Native roles in favor of white actors. When Silverheels entered the movie business, Native casting was dominated by actors such as “Iron-Eyes Cody” (an Italian who was billed as an Indian) or by any spray-tanned performer who could be passed off as Indian. It was common practice for white actors with a make-up job to play the lead role of an Indian, while Indians like Silverheels were relegated to being stuntmen or nameless extras with no lines.

Whether the motive was a dependence on big-name actors, or racism, or a need to portray Indians in an artificial and contrived way, this kind of industry provided difficult competition for aspiring Native actors.

Perhaps it was an attempt to create a more “photogenic” Native identity that Silverheels took on his more Indian-sounding screen name in 1945. Originally his nickname on the lacrosse court, “Silverheels” was admittedly more Indian than “Harry Smith.”

His first major movie role was 1948′s Key Largo, the Bogart and Bacall classic also featuring another Native great of Hollywood, Rodd Redwing.

The following year he made his debut in his most famous role as Tonto, the Lone Ranger’s sidekick. The series made history by making an Indian actor a household name; but in the process a generation of Americans were raised with the image of Indians as nodding, grunting sidekicks.

While he continued to star in the low-budget Westerns that were so prolific in the 40′s and 50′s, he was discontented with the availability of good work opportunities for Native actors and the typecasting of Indians on-screen. He later went on to found the Indian Actors Workshop, a project to which he devoted enormous amounts of time and resources. It still operates today.

In 1963 he was inducted into the Screen Actors Hall of Fame, but it was a hollow triumph; the social constraints of the day had limited his achievements in film to a dubious legacy that ran counter to his advocacy efforts off-screen. In addition, racial issues and activism were coming to the forefront in America, and the kind of roles that made him famous also made him an effigy of outdated thinking for a new generation to attack.

Regardless of the controversy surrounding his career, he is still widely recognized as an important television pioneer. His persistence and talent paved the way for a new class of Native actors and actresses, causing many to wonder what he might have achieved had he lived under different circumstances, in another era of film. Jay Silverheels died in 1980 at his ranch in California. He continues to receive posthumous awards for his accomplishments.

Wikipedia: Jay Silverheels

Haudensosaunee Confederacy – Notable People

Jay Silverheels’ “Tonto spoof” on the Johnny Carson Show (1969)